Indonesia Menuju Pendidikan Inklusif

Moch. Sholeh Y.A. Ichrom

Sebagian kepala seekor kupu-kupu menyembul di luar kepompongnya. Meskipun hanya sebagian kecil, indahnya tampak jelas terlihat. Penggambaran ini mungkin hanya sebuah metafor bagi pendidikan inklusif di Indonesia saat ini.

Ketika pendidikan inklusif diperkenalkan, hal itu dipandang seperti ulat yang memakan daun, buah dan pohon pendidikan khusus. Ide inklusi menghadapi skeptisme dan penolakan, beberapa orang berpendapat:

• Inklusi hanyalah istilah lain untuk pendidikan terpadu, sebuah konsep yang telah lama diimplementasikan di Indonesia;
• Inklusi akan menghilangkan pekerjaan guru-guru pendidikan khusus;
• Kebijakan pendidikan tidak memungkinkan pemberlakuan inklusif;
• Peralihan/pengubahan dari sekolah khusus atau terpisah terlalu sulit;
• Inklusi hanya dapat dilaksanakan di negara-negara yang jumlah siswa per kelasnya sedikit sehingga memungkinkan pembelajaran individual, tetapi tidak untuk Indonesia yang memiliki kelas-kelas besar;
• Inklusi hanya dapat dilaksanakan di negara-negara yang memiliki guru profesional dalam jumlah memadai, sedangkan Indonesia masih berjuang meningkatkan kualitas guru, dan juga;
• Inklusi bergantung pada gaji guru yang tinggi.

Namun demikian setelah pertemuan-pertemuan untuk menggugah kesadaran, lokakarya dan diskusi, banyak orang kemudian menyadari bahwa:

• Inklusi dan integrasi adalah dua konsep yang berbeda;
• Konsep inklusi terkait erat dengan banyak nilai yang ada di masyarakat Indonesia;
• Di masa mendatang, dibutuhkan lebih banyak guru dengan pengetahuan dan pengalaman tentang anak-anak dengan kebutuhan pendidikan khusus-mendukung guru dan anak-anak di sekolah inklusif;
• Peralihan dari segregasi ke inklusi mungkin memang sulit dilakukan, tetapi itu adalah satu-satunya cara menuju PUS;
• Inklusi dapat berhasil di kelas-kelas besar;
• Guru-guru kita dapat menjadi guru-guru yang baik; kita perlu mempercayai dan memberdayakan mereka;
• Kita semua menginginkan guru mendapat gaji lebih besar, tapi kita tidak boleh lupa bahwa beberapa guru terbaik bekerja di sekolah-sekolah desa dengan gaji rendah.

Semboyan nasional ‘Bhineka Tunggal Ika’ mencerminkan nilai inklusif yang sudah diyakini selama berabad-abad. Pengajaran agama, toleransi dan penghormatan bagi perbedaan individu telah menjadi bagian karakteristik bangsa Indonesia selama berabad-abad. Pengajaran-pengajaran ini memasukkan konsep-konsep dan petunjuk-petunjuk praktis untuk mempelajari matematika, IPA, dan IPS, bahasa, pendidikan kejuruan dan olahraga. Ajaran-ajaran ini masuk dalam konsep dan memberi arahan dalam pembelajaran matematika, IPA, IPS, bahasa, pelatihan kejuruan dan pendidikan olah raga. Banyaknya budaya dan kekayaan alam adalah faktor lain yang membantu rekan-rekan kami di Indonesia untuk merangkul konsep pendidikan inklusif dan ramah anak.

Hasil nyata dari proses diseminasi mulai tampak. Pemerintah telah mengeluarkan sejumlah peraturan, kebijakan, rencana, dan program, bahkan memberikan pendanaan untuk pelaksanaan pendidikan inklusif di Indonesia. Perubahan status dari Subdirektorat Pendidikan Luar Biasa menjadi Direktorat yang bertanggung jawab untuk pendidikan inklusi dan pendidikan luar biasa, telah membantu mempercepat diseminasi inklusi. 9 pusat sumber telah ditunjuk untuk mendukung implementasi pendidikan inklusif dan sekolah yang ramah anak. Meskipun mereka memiliki kemampuan berbeda untuk melaksanakan program, mereka tetap merupakan bagian penting dari proses menuju inklusi. Pada tingkat perguruan tinggi, tahun 2003 lalu telah dibuka program pasca sarjana bidang pendidikan inklusif dan kebutuhan khusus di UPI Bandung. Saat ini, program ini merupakan program yang paling terkenal di antara semua program lain di UPI. Rencana kegiatan inovatif lain tentang inklusi, saat ini tengah dikembangkan di Universitas Sebelas Maret Solo dan di Universitas Negeri Padang. Program pelatihan multi tingkat bagi staf pendidikan, dosen, guru, dan aktifis pendidikan di tingkat provinsi dan wilayah, diharapkan menjadi motor penggerak perubahan menuju inklusi di 9 propinsi. Pelatihan tersebut difokuskan pada pemberdayaan pengguna, mendorong kemandirian dan memperkuat hubungan antara inklusi dan kondisi masyarakat lokal.

Deklarasi ‘Indonesia menuju Pendidikan Inklusif’ yang disebut juga Deklarasi Bandung dengan jelas menyebutkan komitmen moral peserta pada pelaksanaan pendidikan inklusif. Versi adaptasi ‘Merangkul Perbedaan - Perangkat untuk Menciptakan Lingkungan yang Ramah terhadap Pembelajaran’ telah diluncurkan oleh Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono pada hari pendidikan nasional, 2 Mei 2005 dan telah didistribusikan ke ratusan sekolah di Indonesia dan Timor Timur.

Pada bulan September 2005 lebih dari 500 peserta dari 30 negara menghadiri ‘Simposium Internasional tentang Inklusi dan Penghapusan Hambatan Pembelajaran: Partisipasi dan Perkembangan’ di Bukittinggi dan Payakumbuh, Sumatra Barat. Indonesia merasa bangga menjadi tuan rumah peristiwa monumental ini. Rekomendasi dari simposium akan lebih memperkuat perkembangan menuju Inklusi di Indonesia.

Banyak hal telah terjadi sejak gagasan inklusi diluncurkan pada tahun 1999, tapi baru sedikit bagian dari kupu-kupu yang tampak, keindahannya, dapat terlihat, namun kecemerlangan yang sesungguhnya masih ditunggu kemunculannya. Sudah saatnya bagi si kupu-kupu untuk keluar dari kepompongnya, memunculkan lebih banyak kupu-kupu dan terbang ke seluruh penjuru negeri dan ke negeri yang lebih jauh. (diadopsi dari eenet.org.)

Moch. Sholeh Y.A. Ichrom, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A, Surakarta, Jawa Tengah; email: msyai@idp-europe.org

Minat Baca, dan Buku Murah

Saya yakin, bukan karena membaca, Suparto Brata tidak mungkin menghasilkan ratusan karya sastra. Karena membaca, Albert Einstein bisa menjadi ilmuwan. Karena membaca pulalah seorang anak SD yang bernama Faiz Abdurrahman, dapat menulis beberapa buku. Berkaitan dengan membaca, kemampuan membaca masyarakat kita sangat memperihatinkan.

Menurut data International Educational Achievement (IEA) melaporkan bahwa kemampuan membaca anak SD Indonesia berada di urutan 38 dari 39 negara yang disurvei. Ketidakmampuan masyarakat terhadap membaca salah satunya, disebabkan oleh rendahnya minat membaca masyarakat. Oleh karena itu salah satu tugas penting kita semua adalah bagaimana masyarakat kita gemar dan memiliki minat membaca dan itu harus dimulai sejak dini.

Keluarga mempunyai peranan yang sangat besar dalam menanamkan minat membaca pada anak. Orang tua bisa menanamkan minat membaca dengan berbagai cara misalnya; membelikan buku-buku bacaan yang disukai anak, pemberian reward kepada setiap anak jika mampu mengkhatamkan buku, atau hanya sekedar mengajak mereka jalan-jalan ke toko buku.

Tetapi, tidak semua keluarga bisa melakukan hal tersebut. Terutama keluarga yang berasal dari kelas menengah ke bawah; dengan kondisi ekonomi yang serba terbatas. Alih-alih beli buku, beli makan saja susah. Kondisi tersebut sangat kontras dengan kehidupan keluarga menengah ke atas. Mereka seringkali mempunyai kemudahan dalam mengakses buku.

Buku sekarang menjadi barang mahal terutama buku-buku yang berbobot dan ”berkualitas”. Toko-toko buku di Surabaya seperti; TB Gramedia, Uranus, Gunung Agung, jarang menjual barang dagangannya dengan harga murah. Kalaupun ada dengan berbagai diskon, kebanyakan sudah expaied. Beruntung warga Surabaya masih punya Belauran. Meskipun, keorsinilitas buku-buku di sana masih diragukan.

Pemerintah selama ini berupaya dengan memberikan fasilitas perpustakaan dan mobil perpustakaan keliling. Tetapi, fasilitas tersebut tidak sebanding dengan jumlah warga yang mencapai 2.599.796 jiwa (2000).

Kita Tidak bisa hanya mengandalkan Perpustakaan daerah (Perpudas) atau pameran-pameran buku murah. Sebenarnya pemerintah bisa medirikan perpustakaan mini model sanggar belajar atau Rumah baca di setiap Kecamatan atau kelurahan. Tempat-tempat tersebut kemungkinan besar lebih mudah diakses oleh semua orang dan lebih efektif. Sanggar Alang-alang atau Rumah Baca (RumCa) Az-Zahra di Ketintang layak dibuat percontohan. (Tulisan ini pernah dimuat dimedia nasional)

What is Inclusive Education? Concept Sheet

Inclusive Education (IE) is a strategy contributing towards the ultimate goal of promoting an inclusive society, one which enables all children/adults, whatever their gender, age, ability, ethnicity, impairment or HIV status, to participate in and contribute to that society. Difference is respected and valued. Discrimination and prejudice will be actively combated in policies, institutions and behaviour.

Education is the right of all children, and IE aims to ensure that all children have access to an appropriate, relevant, affordable and effective education within their community. This education starts in the home with the family, and includes formal, non-formal and all types of community-based education initiatives.

Within schools IE is an approach which aims to develop a child-focus by acknowledging that all children are individuals with different learning needs and speeds. Teaching and learning can become more effective, relevant and fun for all. Therefore IE will always be good for all schools, although all schools may not be good for all children.

IE is part of development, and development should be inclusive, i.e. responding to the needs of real people who are all different. As with all children, disabled children have a range of basic needs which need to be met in order for them to benefit from education. These include nutrition, acceptance, love and basic health care. Poverty and lack of basic infrastructure (roads, transport) affects children’s access to education, including disabled children. Whatever the level of socio/economic development, the education of disabled children should be seen as integral to the development of education for all children. Many of the ‘problems’ which exclude disabled children from education are a result of exclusive planning: planning should be inclusive.

IE is the responsibility of both government and community, requiring collaboration between sectors and extensive participation. Supporting and involving families is central to IE, as the family has prime responsibility for the care and education of their children (whether disabled or not). Community Based Rehabilitieation (CBR) as a component of community development can help meet basic and specific needs of disabled children, such as access to braille and sign and mobility aids. CBR may also have a direct role in supporting the education of children with severe and multiple disabilities, both in the context of their own homes and in day care facilities.

Issues of disabled identity and discrimination need to be addressed as part of an IE strategy. In order to combat discrimination and to promote positive identity in disabled children, disabled role models should be accessible to all children, schools should employ disabled teachers, and curriculum materials should reflect the existence of disabled people in society in positive ways.

As a catalyst for change IE provides not only school improvement but an increased awareness of human rights which leads to a reduction of discrimination. By finding local answers to complex problems it empowers communities and can lead to wider community development. IE addresses a real need, is a readily understandable concept and requires no new major resources. It primarily involves changes of attitudes and behaviour. It has the potential to be a very effective starting point for addressing the Rights of the Child in a range of cultures and contexts.

Note on use of terms
The term Integrated Education generally refers to an approach which has focused on helping disabled children and children with learning difficulties benefit from mainstream schooling. As a result of initial efforts to respond to the needs of children with disability/learning difficulties, schools become more flexible and child-centred and therefore enable other marginalised groups to benefit. The term Inclusive Education is a more accurate term which reflects our common goal. However, many programmes will continue to use the term Integrated Education where this is more meaningful and familiar in that context and culture.

Specific Terms used in Relation to Children and Learning

Guiding Principles
Every child is different, and there is no fixed dividing line between disabled children and non-disabled children, or between children with learning difficulties, and those without. Whatever language is used, it is important that it is clearly understood, promotes positive attitudes and practice, and does not stigmatise. Therefore different terms will be appropriate in different contexts and cultures. Language should not be used for labelling children, but rather for highlighting problems and improving practice. Whatever term is used, the words ‘child’ or ‘children’ should be added, e.g. ‘children with learning difficulties’.

Impairment
This commonly refers to ‘the lack of part or all of a limb, a defective limb, organism or mechanism of the body’. Children with different impairments (e.g. ranging from missing finger, club foot, epilepsy, facial scar to severe brain damage) can be excluded from education for different reasons. These include negative attitudes, lack of physical access/transport, and rigid teaching methods in schools. Having an impairment (e.g. short sight, missing finger) does not automatically mean that the person is disabled.

Disability
Save the Children Fund (SCF) views disability as a social and development issue, not a medical one. In this context, a child with an impairment is ‘disabled’ when, in their particular context and culture, they are excluded from society/education or discriminated against. The term does not just refer to physically disabled children but includes any impairments (such as the less visible hearing impairment). The term ‘handicapped’ is generally felt to be not appropriate in most English-speaking societies (coming from ‘cap-in-hand’ and evoking a passive charity model). Where it is still used, it often refers to people with severe impairment who are ‘handicapped’ by society, and may be used interchangeably with the term ‘disability’.

Special Educational Needs
This term arose out of the realisation by educationalists that not all disabled children (e.g. those who used wheelchairs) had problems learning, and that many children without obvious impairments were failing in schools. It represented a move away from focusing on a medical condition to acknowledging different ‘learning needs and speeds’. However, it is unfortunately still used to label individual children, rather than highlight problems in the system. It is positive concept when it helps schools to become more child-focused and flexible but it does have its limits and is not possible to define precisely. United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) uses the term ‘children with special needs’ to refer to street children and other marginalised groups.

Learning Difficulty
Children do not have a ‘fixed’ ability to learn. All children can learn, and any child may experience difficulty. Their learning is affected by a wide range of factors including the home and school environment, skills/methods of teachers and cultural perceptions of what types of learning are valued and given status. ‘Children with learning difficulty’ is used to refer to children who are not succeeding in mainstream schools. But often their lack of success is to do with poor teaching methods and lack of appropriate support for their learning. So it is a term which should not be used to label children. However some children (e.g. those with conditions such as Down's Syndrome or iodine deficiency, or brain injury) may learn at very different rates and with certain overall (but broad) limits.

Mental Handicap
In some societies, ‘children with severe learning difficulties’ has replaced the terms ‘mental handicap/retardation’ which encourage stigma and focus on a perceived defect. In other societies, ‘mental handicap’ may be a big improvement on ‘mad’ or ‘idiot’ and so is appropriate for the time being (see ‘Guiding Principles’).

1980 - 1995: SCF’s Main IE Programme Overseas

Thailand
1983: Various disability projects started, including units for hearing impaired children and day care for mentally disabled children.
1989: Special classes within mainstream schools started as a response to waiting lists for residential institutions.
1991: IE programme for visually impaired children began.

China
1988: Work with the Anhui Provincial Education Committee began. Two kindergartens started to integrate.
1993: SCF advisor appointed for two years to help scale up.

Laos
1991: Primary Education Programme staff exposed to UNESCO pack and study tour.
1993: Pilot IE school began.
1995: SCF advisor appointed to take work forward and link with Kindergarten programme.

Vietnam
1989: Initial collaboration with Centre for Research and Education of Disabled Children.
1990: Support for special school teacher training, resource centre development and scholarships.
1994: SCF advisor appointed for two years to develop IE.

Lesotho
Pre-1988: SCF ran hostels for boys with polio while they attended mainstream schools and for visually impaired boys while they attended a resource centre for blind people. SCF was considered the lead agency on disability in Lesotho.
1988: Regional disability advisor visited Lesotho and started policy negotiations on IE. Collaboration with the Ministry of Education began.
1991: SCF advisor appointed to coordinate national IE programme.

Morocco
1993: CBR programme began in Khemisset, including small classes for hearing impaired and mentally disabled children. Lobbying and advocacy at national level to promote IE.

Some Examples of Programmes with an IE Component
Swaziland: Pre-school IE is a component of CBR programme.
Zanzibar: IE in mainstream primary is a component of CBR programme.
South Africa: Pre-school IE component in several CBR programmes and in work with NGOs.
Zimbabwe: IE in pre-schools is part of commercial farm workers programme.
Mozambique: As part of CBR. Small signing groups for deaf children.
West Bank: Outreach programme and sponsorship.

Summary of IE Literature Search
Sparse, dominated by a small elite.
Misleading and unreliable use of hard data in relation to formal provision of education to disabled children.
Reinforces negative deficit model of developing country.
Concepts confused and unexamined, e.g. what is meant by the term ‘special needs’?
Cross-cultural issues not addressed. (www.eenet.org)

Avoiding Issue-overload: Core Principles and Diverse Discrimination

In these times of issue-overload (gender, disability, HIV, poverty, ethnicity, age), experts in each ‘issue’ abound, each with their extensive reading material and advice on how to raise awareness on that particular issue. This can be both conceptually and practically overwhelming; despite the best intentions, it becomes a practical impossibility to attend 6 different awareness-raising courses, and plough through 6 different sets of reading material and guidelines, let alone to accommodate 6 different specialist advisor visits from Save the Children Fund (SCF) HQ…… Yet it is immediately obvious to anyone who becomes ‘aware’ on two or more issues, that there are a significant number of common key principles which once understood and internalised, make becoming ‘aware’ on other issues a much easier task. It would seem that at the current time, whilst these common elements are increasingly acknowledged, very little work has actually been done on producing materials and training packages which define these common principles and issues, and clarify the specific differences.

In the disability field, this is probably due in part to the fact that the disability movement is relatively young, and disabled people have needed to spend time defining themselves and their issues before being ready and able to ‘merge’ with other marginalised groups to fight common oppression; a strong identity is needed before integration, rather than assimilation can occur. However, the increasing categorisation of yet more and more types of ‘difference and oppression’ has resulted in an increasing realisation of potentially ludicrous consequences; competition between oppressed groups, labels taking precedence over acknowledging individual difference and common humanity, fear of speaking/acting due to pressure to be ‘politically correct’.

In theory, guiding principles which refer to all children should be relevant to all these diverse groups. In reality, division, discrimination, ‘blind spots’, ‘mental blocks’, fear and ignorance exist, and although there are an infinite number of types of vulnerability and marginalisation, it is still useful to highlight a finite number of key issues which if people are made aware of, then this can help to improve practice.

Experience shows that a person who is gender-aware, child-aware and race-aware, can still be completely disability-unaware, and ignore or discriminate against disabled children and families with disabled members. The process of awareness-raising on these diverse issues is not one of adding layer after layer of information, it is more like training the muscles of perception (seeing, hearing) to be able to focus on marginalised groups and individual difference, and to recognise how one’s own limitations influences perception. Once our ‘muscles’ become used to perceiving flexibly, it hopefully becomes easier with time to acknowledge and respond to a range of differences.

Principles/issues common to all types of discrimination and difference:

• The need to be aware of and acknowledge our own bias, attitudes and emotions in relation to the issue (e.g. what words/images/feelings spring to mind on hearing the word ‘disability’.
• Awareness of the impact of our behaviour/attitudes/style of communication on different groups (e.g. issues around communicating with children, interviewing women, cultural body language - realising that we can be part of the oppression).
• Importance of identifying both common and specific needs and access.
• Finding out about actual lifestyles/perceptions/priorities rather than transferring knowledge about one person or group to another.
• Importance of promoting positive identity (self-help groups, role models).
• Consulting with and involving different groups separately (e.g. meeting with women alone, or disabled women alone, or children alone).
• Focus on removing barriers (attitudinal, physical, institutional) to participation, rather than trying to change the individual.
• Importance of valuing mistakes and imperfection as a contribution to learning.
• The value of identifying with a marginalised group/person (women talking to women, disabled people working with disabled people), but also acknowledgement that anyone can increase understanding by listening and learning (e.g. it is not necessary to be disabled in order to understand anything about disability, but it is necessary to listen to and learn from disabled people).
• Need to challenge discrimination through policy and practice.

Specific issues - some examples relating to disability:

• Disabled people are very different from each other (whether they have the same or very different impairments).
• Disabled people are dispersed throughout all societies (often very isolated from each other).
• There is no clear, objective dividing line between disabled people and non-disabled people - disability relates to perception.
• Anyone can become disabled at any time.

SCF’s experience of integrated education work has highlighted how a focus on a ‘single issue’ such as disability can become a gateway to promoting an inclusive anti-bias approach. In Lesotho, teachers in primary schools received a three week training on ‘special needs’ in order to help them implement the government programme of integrating disabled children. Initially many felt resistant and also afraid of disabled children. However, because the training was about developing good teaching methods to enable teachers to respond to pupil diversity, many teachers found that they gained more than they thought they would;

‘there are many very useful techniques from special education. We are catering for individual difference… the programme has improved the school drop-out rate and repeaters… it helps non-disabled children because they develop a sense of social responsibility, they learn to feel more responsible for their own learning when the teacher is busy with a disabled child… we now work harder and longer hours, but teaching is more interesting and rewarding! There is no going back - it would be like asking a repentant sinner to return to their sins!’ (interviews with teachers).

Although many more girls than boys attend school in Lesotho for a variety of reasons, the awareness-raising and training for the teachers is perceived as a sort of conversion process, whereby they come to ‘see the light’, they are now really convinced that all children can learn, that they as teachers are responsible for children’s learning, and that children are individuals. They respond more appropriately to children who are quiet or a bit slow, and are more aware of the influence of family background and problems on learning.

I would like to suggest that SCF does not begin to produce a parallel literature/process in relation to gender, but rather pioneers a collaborative approach which will define and refine common principles/issues, and then spell out specific issues according to key areas of discrimination, resulting in a single package of guiding principles. What do you think? (Sue Stubbs).www.eenet.org

Contextual Teaching And Learning (Pembelajaran kontekstual)

Hakikat pembelajaran kontektual (Contextual Teaching And Learning) adalah konsep yang membantu guru mengaitkan antara materi yang diajarkan dengan situasi dunia nyata siswa dan mendorong siswa membuat hubungan antara pengetahuan yang dimilikinya dengan penerapan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dengan melibatkan tujuh komponen utama pembelajaran efektif, yaitu :

- Kontruktivisme (Contruktivism)

- Menemukan (Inguiry)

- Bertanya (Questioning)

- Pemodelan (Modelling)

- Refleksi (Reflection)

- Penilaian yang sebenarnya (Authentic Authenctic)

(pendekatan kontektual DEPDIKNAS 2005 : 5)

Tujuh Komponen CTL

a. Kontructivisme (Contructivism)

Contructivisme (contructivism) merupakan landasan berfikir (filosofi) pendekatan CTL, yaitu bahwa pengetahuan dibangun oleh manusia sedeikit demi sedikit, yang hasilnya diperluas.

Konteks yang terbatas (sempit) dan tidak sekonyong konyong. Pengetahuan bukanlah seperangkat fakta-fakta konsep-konsep atau kaidah yang siap untuk diambil dan diingat.

Manusia harus mengkontruksi pengetahuan itu dan memberi makna melalui pengalaman nyata.

Dalam pandangan kontrutivis, strategi memperoleh lebih diutamakan dibandingkan seberapa banyak siswa memperoleh dan mengingat pengetahuan. Untuk itu, tugas guru adalah memfasilitasi proses tersebut dengan :

ü Menjadikan pengetahuan bermakna dan relevan bagi siswa

ü Memberikan kesempatan siswa menemukan dan menerapkan idenya sendiri.

ü Menyadarkan siswa agar menerapkan strategi mereka sendiri dalam belajar.

b. Menemukan (Inguiry)

Menemukan merupakan bagian inti dari kegiatan pembelajaran berbasis CTL. Pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang diperoleh siswa diharapkan bukan hasil mengingat fakta-fakta, tetapi hasil dari menemukan sendiri.

ü Observasi (observation)

ü Bertanya (questioning)

ü Mengajukan dugaan (hipotesis)

ü Pengumpulan data (date gathering)

ü Penyimpulan (conclusion)

c. Bertanya (Questioning)

Pengetahuan yang dimiliki seseorang selalu bermula dari bertanya. Bertanya merupakan strategi utama pembelajaran CTL. Bertanya dipandang sebagai kegiatan guru untuk mendorong, membimbing, dan menilai kemampuan berfikir siswa.

Bagi siswa kegiatan bertanya merupakan bagian penting dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran yang berbasis inguiri, yaitu menggali informasi, mengkonfirmasi apa yang sudah diketahui, dan mengarahkan perhatian pada aspek yang belum diketahuinya.

Questioning dapat diterapkan antara lain :

ü Siswa dengan siswa

ü Guru dengan guru

ü Siswa dengan guru

ü Siswa dengan orang yang didatangkan ke kelas

ü Dan sebagainya.

d. Masyarakat Belajar (Learning Community)

Konsep dari masyarakat belajar adalah pembelajaran diperoleh dari kerjasama dengan orang lain. Masyarakat belajar bisa terjadi apabila ada proses komunikasi dua arah. Dalam kelas CTL, guru selalu mekasanakan dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar.

e. Pemodelan (Modeling)

Pemodelan yang dimaksud adalah, dalam sebuah pembelajaran keterampilan atau pengetahuan tertentu ada model yang bisa ditiru. Dalam pendekatan CTL, guru bukan satu-satunya model. Model dapat dirancang dengan melibatkan siswa dan juga bisa didatangkan dari luar.

f. Refleksi (Reflection)

Refleksi adalah cara berpikir tentang apa yang baru dipelajari atau berfikir ke belakang tentang apa-apa yang sudah kita lakukan di masa lalu. Kunci dari refleksi adalah bagaimana pengetahuan itu mengendap di benak siswa. Siswa mencatat apa yang sudah dipelajari dan bagaimana merasakan ide-ide baru.

g. Penilaian yang sebenarnya (Authentic Assesment)

Assesmen adalah proses pengumpulan berbagai data yang bisa memberikan gambaran perkembangan belajar siswa. Assesmen dilakukan bersama dengan secara terintegrasi (tidak terpisahkan) dari kegiatan pembelajaran, yang penekanannya pada proses pembelajaran. Oleh karena itu data yang dikumpulkan harus diperoleh dari kegiatan nyata yang dikerjakan siswa pada saat melakukan proses pembelajaran.

Kemajuan belajar dinilai dari proses, bukan melulu hasil, dan dengan berbagai cara, test hanya salah satunya. Itulah hakekat penilaian yang sebenarnya.

Dengan melakukan authentic assessment, pertanyaan yang ingin dijawab adalah “apakah anak-anak belajar?”, Apa yang sudah dikerjakan?”. Jadi siswa dinilai kemampuannya dengan berbagai cara, tidak melulu dari hasil ulangan tertulis.

Dengan mengacu pada prinsip-prinsip pendekatan CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning) maka penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa dalam pendekatan CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning) siswa dapat menemukan konsep sendiri menggunakan fakta – fakta yang ada dengan jalan bertanya dalam masyarakat belajar yang diciptakan yang digunakan sebagai model untuk merefleksikan konsep yang didapat sehingga hasil yang didapat adalah hasil yang nyata melalui proses penemuannya sendiri.

2. Landasan Teoritik Pendekatan CTL (Contextual Teaching And Learning)

Ada beberapa teori belajar yang melandasi pendekatan konstektual untuk dapat diterangkap. Adapun teori belajar tersebut adalah :

(a) Teori Belajar Jerome Bruner

Teori belajar J. Bruner dikenal dengan teori belajar penemuan. Belajar penemuan merupakan usaha sendiri untuk mencari pemecahan masalah serta pengetahuan yang menyertainya sehingga mendapatkan pengetahuan yang benar – benar bermakna bagi dirinya (Psikologi pendidikan Drs. Wasty Soemanto : 123)

(b) Teori Belajar Ausubel

Belajar menurut Ausubel adalah belajar bermakna. Menurut ausubel belajar bermakna adalah proses dikaitkannya informasi baru pada konsep-konsep relevan yang terdapat dalam memori seseorang.

(c) Teori Belajar Piaget

Menurut Piaget, ada tiga bentuk pengetahuan pada seseorang yaitu pengetahuan fisik, logika-matematik, dan pengetahuan social. Pengetahuan social dapat ditransfer dari guru ke siswa, sedang pengetahuan fisik dan logika-matematik harus dibangun sendiri oleh orang tersebut (psikologi pendidikan Drs. Wastu Soemanto : 123)

Kesimpulan yang didapat dari landasan teoritik pendekatan CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning) adalah teori belajar yang dapat diterapkan berdasarkan penemuan yang bermakna yang didapat dari transfer orang lain atau yang dibangun dari siswa sendiri.

3. Strategi Pembelajaran yang Relevan terhadap Penerapan Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL)

Strategi yang sesuai dengan pendekatan kontekstual menurut Nur Hadi (2002:6) adalah sebagai berikut :

(a) Cara Belajar Siswa Aktif (CBSA)

CBSA adalah siasat atau strategi membelajarkan siswa melalui pengoptimalan kegiatan intelektual, mental, emosi, social dan motorik agar siswa dapat menguasai tujuan-tujuan intruksional yang harus dicapainya.

(b) Pendekatan Proses (Processing Learning)

Pendekatan proses adalah pendekatan pembelajaran yang lebih menekankan, pada bagaimana ilmu pengetahuan dapat dibelajarkan kepada siswa oleh guru.

(c) Pembelajaran Berdasar Kerja (Life Skill Education)

Pembelajaran berdasar kerja adalah pendekatan pengajaran dimana siswa menggunakan konteks tempat kerja untuk belajar materi sekolah dan bagaimana materi tersebut digunakan di tempat kerja tersebut.

(d) Pengajaran Autentik (Authentic Intruction)

Pengajaran autentik adalah pengajaran menghargai siswanya belajar dalam konteks bermakna. Pembelajaran tersebut membantu berpikir dan memberikan ketrampilan siswanya dalam memecahkan masalah yang berguna dalam dunia nyata.

(e) Pembelajaran Berdasarkan Inguiri (Inguiri Based Learning)

Pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah adalah strategi pengajaran yang mencontoh pada metode ilmiah dan memberikan kesempatan untuk belajar bermakna.

(f) Pembelajaran Berdasar Masalah (Problem Based Learning)

Pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah adalah pendekatan pengajaran yang menggunakan masalah-masalah dunia nyata sebagai konteks bagi siswa untuk belajar berfikir kritis dan terampil memecahkan masalah, serta mendapatkan pengetahuan dari konsep-konsep dasar.

(g) Pembelajaran Kooperatif (Cooperative Learning)

Pembelajaran kooperatif adalah pembelajaran yang memungkinkan siswa akan lebih mudah menemukan dan memahami konsep-konsep yang sulit apabila mereka dapat saling mendiskusikan masalah-masalah tersebut dengan temannya.

(h) Pembelajaran Jasa (Service Learning)

Pembelajaran jasa adalah metode pengajaran yang mengkombinasikan pelayanan masyarakat dengan pelajaran sekolah yang didasarkan pada kesempatan untuk merefleksikan/menyatakan tentang pelayan itu, dan menekankan pada hubungan antara pengalaman pelayanan dan pembelajaran akademik.

Dari beberapa strategi pendekatan di atas, peniliti memilih pembelajaran kooperatif sebagai model dalam pendekatan kontekstual. Alas an pemilihan lebih rinci ada pada keterkaitan pembelajaran kooperatif dengan pendekatan kontekstual (sub bab V).

PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF

1. Tinjauan Umum Pembelajaran Kooperatif

Pembelajaran kooperatif merupakan strategi pembelajaran yang siswa belajar bersama dengan kelompok-kelompok kecil dan saling membantu satu sama lain. Kelas disusun dalam kelompok yang terdiri dari 4 atau 5 siswa dengan kemampuan yang heterogen. Maksud heterogen adalah terdiri dari campuran siswa, jenis kelamin, ras/suku, kesenangan, dan latar belakang sosial yang berbeda. Hal ini bermanfaat untuk melatih siswa menerima perbedaan pendapat dan bekerja dengan teman yang latar belakangnya berbeda. Pada model pembelajaran kooperatif diajarkan ketrampilan-ketrampilan khusus agar dapat bekerja sama dengan baik di dalam kelompoknya.

Unsur-unsur dasar pembelajaran kooperatif adalah sebagai berikut :

(a) Siswa dalam kelompoknya haruslah beranggapan bahwa “sehidup sepenanggungan bersama”

(b) Siswa bertanggung jawab atas segala sesuatu di dalam kelompoknya, seperti milik mereka sendiri.

(c) Siswa haruslah melihat bahwa semua anggota di dalam kelompoknya memiliki tujuan yang sama.

(d) Siswa haruslah membagi tugas dan tanggung jawab yang sama diantara anggota kelompoknya.

(e) Siswa akan dikenakan evaluasi atau diberikan hadiah/penghargaan yang juga akan dikenakan untuk semua anggota kelompok.

(f) Siswa berbagi kepemimpinan dan mereka membutuhkan keterampilan untuk belajar bersama selama proses belajarnya.

(g) Siswa akan diminta mempertanggungjawabkan secara individu materi yang ditangani dalam kelompok kooperatif.

Beberapa keuntungan dalam pembelajaran kooperatif menurut slavin dalam buku Pembelajaran kooperatif :

ü Siswa bekerja sama dalam mencapai tujuan dengan menjunjung tinggi norma-norma kelompok.

ü Siswa aktif membentuk dan mendorong semangat untuk sama-sama berhasil. Aktif berperan sebagai tutor dalam kelompok sehingga dapat meningkatkan keberhasilan kelompok.

ü Interaksi antar siswa membantu meningkatkan kemampuan mereka dalam berpendapat.

ü Interaksi antar siswa membantu meningkatkan perkembangan kognitif mereka.

2. Langkah-langkah Model Pembelajaran Kooperatif

Terdapat 6 langkah utama atau tahapan dalam model pembelajaran kooperatif. Keenam tahap pembelajaran kooperatif tersebut dirangkum dalam table berikut :

TABEL : 1

TAHAP – TAHAP MODEL PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF

Tahap-tahap	Kegiatan Guru
Tahap – 1 Menyampaikan tujuan pembelajaran dan motivasi siswa	Guru menyampaikan tujuan pembelajaran yang ingin dicapai pada pelajaran tersebut dan memotivasi siswa belajar.

3.

Tahap – 2 Menyajikan informasi	Guru menyampaikan tujuan informasi kepada siswa dengan jalan demontrasi atau lewat bahan bacaan.
Tahap – 3 Mengorganisasikan siswa ke dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar	Guru menjelaskan kepada siswa bagaimana caranya membentuk kelompok belajar dan membantu setiap kelompok agar melakukan transit secara efisien.
Tahap – 4 Membimbing kelompok bekerja dan belajar	Guru membimbing kelompok-kelompok belajar pada saat mereka mengerjakan tugas.
Tahap – 5	Guru mengevaluasi hasil belajar tentang materi yang telah dipelajari atau masing – masing kelompok mempresentasikan hasil kerjanya.
Tahap – 6 Memberikan penghargaan	Guru mencari cara-cara untuk menghargai baik upa maupun hasil belajar individu dan kelompok

KETERKAITAN PENDEKATAN KONTEKSTUAL DENGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF

Salah satu komponen dari CTL adalah masyarakat belajar (Learning Community). Konsep learning Community menyarankan agar hasil pembelajaran diperoleh dari kerjasama dengan orang lain. Dalam kelas CTL guru disarankan selalu melaksanakan pembelajaran dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar. Masyarakat belajar bisa terjadi apabila ada proses komunikasi dua arah dan dua kelompok (atau lebih) yang terlibat dalam komunikasi pembelakaran saling belajar. Seseorang yang terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat belajar memberi informasi yang diperlukan oleh teman bicaranya dan sekaligus juga meminta informasi yang diperlukan dari teman belajarnya.

Metode pembelajaran teknik learning community sangat membantu proses pembelajaran di kelas. Prakteknya dalam pembelajaran terwujud dalam :

- Pembentukan kelompok kecil

- Pembentukan kelompok besar

- Mendatangkan ahli kke kelas

- Bekerja dengan kelas sederajat

- Bekerja kelompok dengan kelas diatasnya

- Bekerja dengan masyarakat

Dari konsep masyarakat belajar yang ada, maka ada keterkaitan CTL dan pembelajaran model kooperatif. Keterkaitan itu adalah siswa harus menemukan konsep dan bertanya yang diciptakan sendiri pada kelompoknya, sehingga siswa akan lebih berkomunikasi dan menyelesaikan masalah dengan teman satu kelompok dan hasilnya akan lebih diterima karena hasil itu adalah dari pemikiran anggota kelompok.

2.2. Pengertian Belajar

Menurut RERGUTNRIE dalam bukunya (the psychology of learning) mengemukakan definisi belajar yang artinya sebagai berikut berbuat sesuatu, belajar untuk menulis, belajar untuk bermain sky, pendek kata ialah hasil suatu kecakapan atau keahlian khusus atau sanggupan dari beberapa prestasi. Jadi pengertian belajar ini adalah adanya perubahan-perubahan yang menuju ke arah yang lebih sempurna (maju) dan perubahan-perubahan itu dikarenakan adanya latihan-latihan yang disengaja (TIM MKDK hal : 110) psikologi pendidikan.

Teori-teori belajar dari psikologi humanistic

Tujuan utama para pendidik ialah :

Yaitu membantu siswa untuk mengembangkan dirinya yaitu membantu masing-masing individu untuk mengenal diri mereka sendiri sebagai manusia yang unik dan membantu dalam mewujudkan potensi-potensi yang ada pada diri mereka. (hama check 1977 : 148). Menurut Rogers dalam bukunya Freedom to learn, ia menunjukkan sejumlah prinsip-prinsip belajar humanistic yang penting diantaranya adalah :

1. Manusia itu mempunyai kemampuan untuk belajar secara alami.

2. Belajar yang signifikan terjadi apabila mempunyai relevansi dengan maksud-maksud sendiri.

3. Belajar yang menyangkut suatu perubahan di dalam persepsi mengenai dirinya sendiri dianggap mengancam dan cenderung unbtuk ditolaknya.

4. Tugas-tugas belajar yang mengancam diri adalah lebih mudah dirasakan dan diasimulasikan apabila ancaman-ancaman dari luar itu semakin kecil.

5. Apabila ancaman terhadap diri siswa rendah pengalaman dapat diperoleh dengan berbagai cara yang berbeda-beda dan terjadinya cara yang berbeda-beda dan terjadinya proses belajar.

6. Belajar yang bermakna diperoleh siswa dengan melakukannya.

7. Belajar diperlancar bilamana siswa dilibatkan dalam proses belajar dan ikut bertanggung jawab terhadap proses belajar itu.

8. Belajar atas inisiatif sendiri yang melibatkan pribadi siswa seutuhnya baik perasaan maupun intelek merupakan cara yang dapat memberikan hasil yang mendalam dan lestari.

9. Kepercayaan terhadap diri sendiri kemerdekaan, kreatifitas lebih mudah dicapai apabila terutama siswa dirasakan untuk mawas diri dan mengeritik dirinya sendiri dan penilaian diri orang lain merupakan cara yang kedua yang penting.

10. Belajar yang paling berguna secara sosial di dalam dunia modern ini adalah belajar mengenai proses belajar suatu keterbukaan yang terus menerus terhadap pengalaman dan penyatuannya. Keadalam pengalaman dan penyatuannya ke dalam dirinya sendiri mengenai proses perubahan itu (buku psikologi pendidikan Drs. Wasty Soemanto : 132)

Belajar dengan memecahkan masalah sendiri tanpa bantuan khusus memberi hasil yang lebih unggul, dan aturan yang ditemukan sendiri memberi kemampuan yang lebih tinggi dan akan diingat dalam jangka waktu yang lebih lama. Buku belajar-mengajar Prof. Drs. Nasution.M.A. p: 173

2.3. Fisika adalah cabang dari ilmu pengetahuan alam (sains). Oleh karena itu hakekatnya fisika dapat ditinjau dan dapat dipahami melalui hakekaktnya sains.

Beberapa saintis mendifinisikan sains sebagai berikut :

• Conant dalam sumaji, 1998, 161 : “Sains adalah bangunan atau deretan konsep dan skema konseptual yang saling berhubungan sebagai hasil dari eksperimen dan observasi, yang berguna dan bernilai untuk eksperimentasi serta observasi.
• Fisher dalam Sumaji, 1998, 161 : “Sains adalah bangunan pengetahuan yang diperoleh menggunakan metode berdasarkan observasi”
• Campbel dalam Sumaji, 1998, 161 : “Saint adalah pengetahuan yang bermanfaat dan praktis dan cara atau metode untuk memperolehnya”.
• Zen dalam Sumaji, 1998, 161 : “Sains adalah suatu eksplorasi kea lam materi berdasarkan observasi, dan yang mencari hubungan-hubungan alamiah yang teratur mengenai fenomena yang diamati serta bersifat mampu menguji diri sendiri”.
• Carin dan Sund dalam Sumaji, 1998, 161 : “sains adalah suatu system untuk memahami semesta melalui data yang dikumpulkan melalui observasi atau eksperimen yang dikontrol”.
• Dawson dalam Sumaji, 1998, 161 : “Sains adalah aktivitas pemecahan masalah oleh manusia yang termotivasi oleh keingintahuan akan alam disekilingnya dan keinginan untuk memahami, menguasai dan mengolahnya demi memenuhi kebutuhan.

Dari beberap definisi sains di atas maka dapat disimpulkan bawah : “sains terdiri dari dua aspek yaitu proses sains dan produk sains”. Proses sains eksperimen yang meliputi penemuan masalah dan perumusannya.

Penemuan hipotesis merancang percobaan melakukan pengukuran, menganalisa datan dan menarik kesimpulan. Produk sains (IPA) adalah berupa bangunan sistematik pengetahuan yang terdiri atas berbagai fakta konsep prinsip, hokum dan teori yang terorganisir,

Berdasarkan uraian ini maka fisika merupakan proses dan produk yang saling berkaitan. Ini berarti bahwa dalam fisika tidak hanya mendengarkan ceramah atau membaca teks saja, tetapi harus disertai dengan keaktifan dari siswa itu untuk dapat menemukan sendiri.

Berdasarkan pengertian belajar dan pengertian fisika maka hakekatnya belaja fisika adalah proses perubahan di dalam diri manusia yang tumbuh. Sebagai hasil eksperimentasi dan observasi serta berguna untuk diamati dan diekspermentasikan lebih lanjut.

2.4. Prestasi Belajar

Prestasi belajar adalah keadaan akhir yang diamati pada tiap satu bahasan sebagai hasil kegiatan pembelajaran yang dicapai individu keadaan akhir ditandai dengan tingkah laku yang dapat diamati.

Keterampilan, pehaman, dan pengetahuan yang dapat diukur dari skor nilai yang diperoleh siswa.

Prestasi belajar siswa dipengaruhi oleh 2 faktor :

1. Faktor Intern

Factor intern adalah fakto yang berasal dari individu sendiri. Faktor ini misalnya faktor fisik / keadaan jasmani dari individu, faktor psikologis yang merupakan faktor kejiwaan / mental individu yang terdiri dari intelegen, bakat, minat serta motivasi.

2. Faktor Ekstern

Faktor ekstern adalah faktor yang berasal dari luar individu, misalnya faktor lingkungan, tempat individu tersebut dilahirkan, baik tempat tinggal, bermain dan sebagainya. Faktor sosial yang merupakan faktor lingkungan pergaulan yang meliputi orang tua, guru, teman. Faktor alat serta instrument yang semuanya berhubungan dengan pembelajaran.

Dalam menilai seberapa jauh tujuan pembelajaran khusus telah dikuasai oleh para siswa, dapat digunakan tes. Pengertian tes adalah sederatan pertanyaan / latihan / alat lain yang digunakan untuk mengukur ketrampilan, pengetahuan, intelegensi, kemampuan / bakat yang dimiliki oleh individu / kelompok. Tes menurut Ibrahim (1996) meliputi tes tertulis dan lisan yang digunakan untuk mengukur tingkat pemahaman siswa terhadap tujuan pembelajaran khusus dan tes perbuatan yang digunakan untuk mengukur ketrampilan siswa yang terkandung dalam tujuan pembelajaran khusus (missal lompat tinggi. Melukis) (sobatbaru.blogspot.com)

ADHD Treatment... What's Most Effective?

ADHD Treatment...What Treatments Are Available?

For decades, medications have been used as the main ADHD treatment for the symptoms of ADHD. Three medications in the class of drugs known as stimulants seem to be the most effective in both children and adults. These are methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine or Dextrostat), and pemoline (Cylert). Plus...Strattera (a non-stimulant drug), fairly new, is coming in with excellent results.

For many people, these medicines dramatically reduce their hyperactivity and improve their ability to focus, work, and learn. The medications may also improve physical coordination, such as handwriting and ability in sports.

Recent research by NIMH suggests that these medicines may also help children with an accompanying conduct disorder to control their impulsive, destructive behaviors.

Ritalin can help many focus on and complete tasks for the first time. Dexedrine can help an ADD ADHD to sit quietly, focus his attention more. Also to become less impulsive and aggressive. Along with these changes the ability to make and keep friends can be improved.

Unfortunately, when people see such immediate improvement, they often think medication is all that's needed as an effective ADHD treatment. But these medicines don't cure the disorder, they only temporarily control the symptoms.

Although the drugs help people pay better attention and complete their work, they can't increase knowledge or improve academic skills. The drugs alone can't help people feel better about themselves or cope with problems. These changes require other kinds of treatment and support.

For lasting improvement, numerous clinicians recommend that medications should be used along with treatments that aid in these other areas.

Remember, there are no quick cures in ADD treatment.

Many experts believe that the most significant, long-lasting gains appear when medication is combined with behavioral therapy, emotional counseling, and practical support. (Note: Always check with your physician for proper medical advice concerning drugs)

Additional Articles:

There are a lot of myths about ADD ADHD medications. Some are true, many are not. Here's some facts to help you get it straight when it concerns ADD ADHD meds.

It is important to work with the prescribing physician to find the right ADHD medicine and the right dosage. For many people, the stimulants dramatically reduce their hyperactivity and impulsivity and improve their ability to focus, work, and learn.

Although the ADHD drugs help the child pay better attention and complete school work, they can't increase knowledge or improve academic skills. ADHD drug(s) can help the child to use those skills he or she already possesses.

Determine when your energy level is highest, Time and treatment: schedule your best time (the time when your energy level is the highest) and do important tasks during that time period. Establish goals (long-term), (mid-term), and (short-term). Set Priorities...

The reason an ADD coach can be helpful is because your own coach or therapist will look at you and your family on an individual case. He or she will take your family dynamics and individual

(resource : adult-child-add.com)

Is There An ADHD Natural Remedy That Works?

ADHD Natural Remedy? Do any work? If not, are there other methods that will help?

There are a wide variety of ADHD natural remedy (s) for ADD ADHD being promoted on the world wide web and elsewhere. Megavitamin therapy...which is the prescription of vitamins in quantities greatly

in excess of the Recommended Daily Allowance guidelines has been suggested as a treatment for hyperactivity and learning disabilities.

L Tyrosine. This is an amino acid (a protein) that the body uses to synthesize dopamine and norepinephrine, the two neurotransmitters believed to be involved in ADD ADHD.

These neurotransmitters are the targets of the medications used to treat attention deficit disorder. Some studies have shown that children with add adhd may have lower levels of this amino acid.

By increasing the intake of L Tyrosine through diet or supplements, it is possible to increase the amount of dopamine and norepinephrine available in the brain.

It has been seen in clinical practice that some ADD ADHD sufferers, including both children and teens have benefited from taking one or two Tyrosine tablets per day in conjunction with psychological interventions.

There are...however some over-the-counter supplements that have been shown to improve the add adhd symptoms.

The alternative community’s thought is that there are four major alternatives to stimulant drug therapy:

Natural drugs and homeopathy, counseling, assistive technology school support services and EEG biofeedback.

How effective are they?

Alternatives to stimulant medications, like an ADHD natural remedy, cover a wide range of approaches. Support of their effectiveness is determined by their method.

Self-confidence in one's capabilities is the central goal of the therapy and counseling method.

More psychological than physical, therapy guides and reassures add adhd patients on their abilities and provides daily behavior and attention management.k/

Therapy covers a wide range of treatments from psychological and behavioral treatments to routine community care, all helping people cope with their disability.

People are treated on individual basis. The personal and intimate style of therapy helps patients become comfortable with their disability and personal management on their own.

Similar to therapy, assistive technology focuses on specific and individual abilities.

The method works to improve student's self-esteem in the classroom. By working on problem solving skills for youth and adolescents, assistive technology is directed towards the classroom.

Direct teacher strategic assistance provides students with a clear orientation. The method bases itself on teaching strategies for the classroom and individual products to help the student overcome minor difficulties.

Products like handheld spell-checks to improve spelling, reinforce the student's self-esteem. This method has been shown to work best for college students. Though specific strategies such as direct instruction and control of task difficulty have shown to work in younger people.

A non-stimulant, alternative biological method, EEG biofeedback, guides the brain in management of the central nervous system.

Brainwaves are measured and controlled through an EEG, electroencephalogram, which regulates the body and psychological functions for the ADD ADHD.

The patient is connected to conductor pads, which read the brainwaves, while simultaneously observing the waves that appear as colored bars on a graph.

Control of the brainwaves is the goal of the exercise, moving the colored bars move either up or down, producing slow and fast brainwaves.

Response to "Brainwave training" has been mixed; studies show that improvement is shown, though the amount of improvement can be minimal. The home setting can affect the results, along with age and degree of disability of patient.

All that being said...there are some over the counter adhd natural remedy (s) that will help the person with add adhd.

(sourcer: adult-child-add.com)

ADHD Diagnosis

ADHD Diagnosis... Types of Professionals Who Can Give You The Most Help...

ADHD Diagnosis...

School-age and preschool children are often evaluated by a school psychologist or a team made up of the school psychologist and other specialists for an ADHD diagnosis.

But what if the school doesn't believe the student has a problem? Or what if the family wants another opinion.

The family may need to see a specialist in private practice.

In such cases, who can the family turn to? What kinds of specialists do they need?

Here's a table showing who's qualified to make an ADHD diagnosis...

Speciality	Can Diagnose ADHD	Can Prescribe Medications... If Needed	Provides Counseling Or Training
Psychiatrists	Yes	Yes	Yes
Psychologists	Yes	No	Yes
Pediatritions Of Family Physicians	Yes	Yes	No
Neurologists	Yes	Yes	No

The family can start by talking with the child's pediatrician or their family doctor to start the ADHD diagnosis.

Some pediatricians may do the assessment themselves, but more often they refer the family to an appropriate specialist they know and trust.

In addition, state and local agencies that serve families and children, as well as some of the volunteer organizations can help identify an appropriate specialist.

Knowing the differences in qualifications and services can help the family choose someone who can best meet their needs.

Besides school psychologists, there are several types of specialists qualified to diagnose and treat ADD ADHD.

Child psychiatrists are doctors who specialize in diagnosing and treating childhood mental and behavioral disorders.

A Psychiatrist:

Can provide therapy and prescribe any needed medications.

Psychologists:

Are not medical doctors and must rely on the child's physician to do medical exams and prescribe medication. Child psychologists are also qualified to diagnose and treat ADHD. They can provide therapy for the child and help the family develop ways to deal with the disorder.

Neurologists:

These are physicians who work with disorders of the brain and nervous system. They can also make an ADHD diagnosis and prescribe medicines.

But unlike psychiatrists and psychologists, neurologists usually do not provide therapy for the emotional aspects of the disorder.

Adults who think they may have AD ADHD can also seek a psychologist, psychiatrist, or neurologist.

But at present, not all specialists are skilled in making an ADHD diagnosis or treating ADD ADHD in adults.

Within each specialty, individual doctors and mental health professionals differ in their experience with ADD ADHD.

So in selecting a specialist, it's important to find someone with specific training and experience in diagnosing and treating the disorder.

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Homework: A Concern for the Whole Family

Homework is an opportunity for the adhd student to learn and for families to be involved in their children’s education. However, helping the adhd student with homework isn’t always easy. At parent-teacher meetings and in conferences with parents, teachers often hear questions such as:

How can I get Michael (ADHD student) to do his homework? Every night it’s a struggle to get him to turn off the TV and do his homework.

Why isn’t my ADHD student...Maria getting more homework?

Why is Jonathan getting so much homework?

When is Suki supposed to do homework? She takes piano lessons, sings in her church choir, plays basketball and helps with family chores. There’s hardly any time left to study.

How can I help Robert with his math homework when I don’t understand it?

Do homework assignments really help my child learn?

The Basics

Before discussing ways that you can help your adhd student with homework, it is important to discuss why teachers assign homework and how it benefits your child.

Why Do Teachers Assign Homework?

Teachers assign homework for many reasons. Homework can help their adhd student(s)

review and practice what they’ve covered in class

get ready for the next day’s class

learn to use resources, such as libraries, reference materials and computer Web sites to find information about a subject

explore subjects more fully than classroom time permits

extend learning by applying skills they already have to new situations

integrate their learning by applying many different skills to a single task, such as book reports or science projects.

Homework also can help the adhd student to develop good study habits and positive attitudes. It can

teach them to work independently

encourage self-discipline and responsibility (assignments provide some children with their first chance to manage time and to meet deadlines).

In addition, homework can help create greater understanding between families and teachers and provide opportunities for increased communication. Monitoring homework keeps families informed about what their children are learning and about the policies and programs of the teacher and the school.

Set a Regular Time for Homework

Having a regular time to do homework helps children to finish assignments.

The best schedule is one that works for your child (adhd student) and your family. What works well in one household may not work in another. Of course, a good schedule depends in part on your adhd student's age as well as her specific needs.

For instance, one child may do homework best in the afternoon, completing homework first or after an hour of play and another may do it best after dinner. However, don’t let your child leave homework to do just before bedtime.

Your child’s outside activities, such as sports or music lessons, may mean that you need a flexible homework schedule. Your child may study after school on some days and after dinner on others.

If there isn’t enough time to finish homework, your child may need to drop some outside activity. Let her know that homework is a high priority.

You’ll need to work with your elementary school child to develop a schedule. An older student can probably make up a schedule independently, although you’ll want to make sure that it’s a workable one.

You may find it helpful to write out his schedule and put it in a place where you’ll see it often, such as on the refrigerator door.

Some families have a required amount of time that their children must devote to homework or some other learning activities each school night (the length of time can vary depending upon the child’s age).

For instance, if your seventh grader knows she’s expected to spend an hour doing homework, reading or visiting the library, she may be less likely to rush through assignments so that she can watch TV. A required amount of time may also discourage her from “forgetting” to bring home assignments and help her adjust to a routine.

Pick a Place

Your child’s homework area doesn’t have to be fancy. A desk in the bedroom is nice, but for many children, the kitchen table or a corner of the living room works just fine. The area should have good lighting and it should be fairly quiet.

Your child may enjoy decorating a special area for homework. A plant, a brightly colored container to hold pencils and some favorite artwork taped to the walls can make homework time more pleasant.

Remove Distractions

Turn off the TV and discourage your child from making and receiving social telephone calls during homework time. (A call to a classmate about an assignment, however, may be helpful.)

Some children work well with quiet background music, but loud noise from the CD player, radio or TV is not OK.

One history teacher laments, “I’ve actually had a kid turn in an assignment that had written in the middle, ‘And George Washington said, “Ohhhhh, I love you.”’

The kid was so plugged into the music that he wasn’t concentrating.”

If you live in a small or noisy household, try having all family members take part in a quiet activity during homework time. You may need to take a noisy toddler outside or into another room to play.

If distractions can’t be avoided, your child may want to complete assignments in the local library.

Provide Supplies and Identify Resources

Have available pencils, pens, erasers, writing paper and a dictionary. Other supplies that might be helpful include a stapler, paper clips, maps, a calculator, a pencil sharpener, tape, glue, paste, scissors, a ruler, a calculator, index cards, a thesaurus and an almanac.

If possible, keep these items together in one place. If you can’t provide your child with needed supplies, check with her teacher, school guidance counselor or principal about possible sources of assistance.

For books and other information resources, such as suitable computer Web sites, check with the school library or your local public library.

Some libraries have homework centers designed especially to assist children with school assignments (they may even have tutors and other kinds of individual assistance).

You may want to ask your child’s teacher to explain school policy about the use of computers for homework. Certainly, computers are great learning and homework tools.

Your child can use her computer not only for writing reports and for getting information through Internet resource sites, but for “talking” with teachers and classmates about assignments.

In many schools, teachers post information about homework assignments and class work on their own Web sites, which also may have an electronic bulletin board on which students can post questions for the teacher and others to answer assignments successfully.

Some schools may offer after-school programs that allow your child to use the school computers. And many public libraries make computers available to children.

Set a Good Example

Show your child that the skills he is learning are an important part of the things he will do as an adult. Let him see you reading books, newspapers and computer screens; writing reports, letters, e-mails and lists; using math to balance your checkbook or to measure for new carpeting; doing other things that require thought and effort.

Tell your child about what you do at work.

Help your child to use everyday routines to support the skills he is learning—for example, teach him to play word and math games

help him to look up information about things in which he is interested—singers, athletes, cars, space travel and so forth; and talk with him about what he sees and hears as the two of you walk through the neighborhood, go shopping at the mall or visit a zoo or museum.

>Be Interested and Interesting

Make time to take your child to the library to check out materials needed for homework (and for enjoyment) and read with your child as often as you can. Talk about school and learning activities in family conversations.

Ask your child what was discussed in class that day. If she doesn’t have much to say, try another approach. For example, ask her to read aloud a story she wrote or to talk about what she found out from a science experiment.

Attend school activities, such as parent-teacher conferences, plays, concerts, open houses and sports events. If you can, volunteer to help in your child’s classroom or at special events.

Getting to know some of your child’s classmates and their parents builds a support network for you and your child. It also shows your child that his home and school are a team.

How to Help: Monitor Assignments

Children are more likely to complete homework successfully when parents monitor their assignments. How closely you need to monitor your child depends upon her age, how independent she is and how well she does in school. Whatever the age of your child, if she is not getting assignments done satisfactorily, she requires more supervision.

Here are some ways to monitor your child’s assignments.

Ask about the School’s Homework Policy

At the start of the school year, ask your child’s teacher about any rules or guidelines that children are expected to follow as they complete homework. Ask about the kinds of assignments that will be given and the purposes for the assignments.

Talk with the teacher about your role in helping with homework. Expectations for parent involvement vary from teacher to teacher.

Some teachers want parents to monitor homework closely, whereas others want them simply to check to make sure the assignment is completed on time.

Ask the teacher to call if any problems with homework come up. Let her know that you will do the same.

Be Available

Many elementary school students often like to have someone with them to answer questions as they work on assignments. If your child is cared for by someone else, talk to that caregiver about how to deal with homework.

For an older child, if no one will be around, let him know when you want him to begin work and call to remind him if necessary.

However, if the teacher has made it known that the adhd student is to do homework on their own, limit your assistance to your child to assuring that assignments are clear and that necessary supplies are provided.

Too much parent involvement can make children dependent—and takes away from the value of homework as a way for children to become independent and responsible.

Look over Completed Assignments

It’s usually a good idea to check to see that your elementary school child has finished her assignments. If your middle-school student is having trouble finishing assignments, check his work, too.

After the teacher returns completed homework, read the comments to see if your child has done the assignment satisfactorily.

Monitor Time Spent Viewing TV and Playing Video Games

American children on average spend far more time watching TV or playing video games than they do completing homework. In many homes, more homework gets done when TV viewing and “game” time is limited.

Once you and your adhd student have worked out a homework schedule, take time to discuss how much TV and what programs she can watch. It’s worth noting that television can be a learning tool.

Look for programs that relate to what your child is studying in school, such as programs on history or science or dramatizations of children’s literature. When you can, watch shows with your child, discuss them and encourage follow-up activities such as reading or a trip to the museum.

Likewise, limit the amount of time your child spends playing video games. As with TV programs, be aware of the games she likes to play and discuss her choices with her.

How to Help: Provide Guidance

The basic rule is, “Don’t do the assignments yourself.” It’s not your homework—it’s your child’s. “I’ve had kids hand in homework that’s in their parents’ handwriting,” one eighth-grade teacher complains. Doing assignments for your child won’t help him understand and use information. And it won’t help him become confident in his own abilities.

Here are some ways that you can provide guidance without taking over your child’s homework.

Help Your Child Get Organized

Help your child to make a schedule and put it in a place where you’ll see it often. Writing out assignments will get him used to the idea of keeping track of what’s due and when.

If your child is not yet able to write, write it for him until he can do it himself.

A book bag or backpack will make it easier for your child to carry homework to and from school. Providing homework folders in which your child can tuck his assignments for safekeeping also can help him to stay organized.

Talk with your child about how to take a test. Be sure she understands how important it is to read the instructions carefully, to keep track of the time and to avoid spending too much time on any one question.

Talk about the Assignments

Talking and asking questions can help your child to think through an assignment and break it down into small, manageable parts. Here are some questions to ask.

Do you understand what you’re supposed to do?

After your child has read the instructions, ask her to tell you in her own words what the assignment is about. (If she can’t read yet, the teacher may have sent home instructions that you can read to her.)

Some schools have homework hotlines that you can call or Web sites that you can access by computer for assignments in case your child misplaced a paper or was absent on the day it was given. If your child doesn’t understand the instructions, read them with her and talk about the assignment.

Does it have words that she doesn’t know? How can she find out what the words mean? If neither you nor your child understands an assignment, call one of her classmates or get in touch with the teacher.

Do you need help in understanding how to do this assignment? See if your child needs to learn more, for example, about subtracting fractions before she can do her assignment.

Or find out if the teacher needs to explain to her again when to use different kinds of punctuation marks. If you understand the subject yourself, you may want to work through some examples with your child. However, always let her do the assignment herself.

Do you have everything you need to do the assignment? Sometimes your child needs special supplies, such as colored pencils, metric rulers, calculators, maps or reference books.

Check with the teacher, school guidance counselor or principal for possible sources of assistance if you can’t provide the needed supplies. Check with your local library or school library for books and other information resources.

Does your answer make sense to you? To check that your child understands what he is doing, ask him to explain how he solved a math problem or have him summarize what he has written in a report.

Watch for Frustration

If your child shows signs of frustration, let him take a break. Encourage him and let him see that you know he can do the work.

Give Praise

People of all ages respond to praise. And children need encouragement from the people whose opinions they value most—their families. “Good first draft of your book report!” or “You’ve done a great job” can go a long way toward motivating your child to complete assignments.

Children also need to know when they haven’t done their best work. Make criticism constructive, however. Instead of telling a sixth grader, “You aren’t going to hand in that mess, are you?” say, “The teacher will understand your ideas better if you use your best handwriting.”

Then give praise when the child finishes a neat version.

How to Help: Talk with Teachers to Resolve Problems

Homework problems often can be avoided when families and caregivers value, monitor and guide their children’s (ADHD student)(s) work on assignments.

Sometimes, however, helping in these ways is not enough. If you have problems, here are some suggestions for how to deal with them.

Tell the Teacher about Your Concerns

You may want to contact the teacher if

your child (ADHD student) refuses to do her assignments, even though you’ve tried hard to get her to do them

the instructions are unclear

you can’t seem to help your child get organized to finish the assignments

you can’t provide needed supplies or materials

neither you nor your ADHD student can understand the purpose of the assignments

the assignments are too hard or too easy

the homework is assigned in uneven amounts—for instance, no homework is given on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday, but on Thursday four assignments are made that are due the next day

your child has missed school and needs to make up assignments

In some cases, the school guidance counselor or principal also may be helpful in resolving problems with the ADHD student

Additional Aritlces:

The difference in test scores and grades between students who do more homework in school and those who do less increases as students move up through the grades.